Перевод: с английского на все языки

со всех языков на английский

reform measures

  • 1 health-care reform measures

    Экономика: меры по реформированию здравоохранения (англ. оборот взят из статьи, опубликованной в The Washington Post)

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > health-care reform measures

  • 2 optimal order of educational reform measures


    optimalni redoslijed reformskih poteza

    English-Croatian dictionary > optimal order of educational reform measures

  • 3 reform

    1. transitive verb
    1) (make better) bessern [Person]; reformieren [Institution]
    2) (abolish)

    reform something — mit etwas aufräumen

    2. intransitive verb 3. noun
    (of person) Besserung, die; (in a system) Reform, die (in Gen.)
    * * *
    [rə'fo:m] 1. verb
    1) (to improve or remove faults from: The criminal's wife stated that she had made great efforts to reform her husband.) bessern
    2) (to give up bad habits, improve one's behaviour etc: He admitted that he had been a criminal, but said that he intended to reform.) sich bessern
    2. noun
    1) (the act of improving: the reform of our political system.) die Reform
    2) (an improvement: He intends to make several reforms in the prison system.) die Reform
    •
    - academic.ru/61097/reformation">reformation
    - reformed
    - reformer
    * * *
    re·form
    [rɪˈfɔ:m, AM -ˈfɔ:rm]
    I. vt
    ▪ to \reform sth institution, system etw reformieren
    to \reform a criminal/drug addict einen Kriminellen/Drogenabhängigen/eine Kriminelle/Drogenabhängige bessern [o ÖSTERR bes resozialisieren]
    ▪ to \reform oneself sich akk bessern
    II. vi person sich akk bessern
    for years I was an alcoholic but I \reformed ich war jahrelang Alkoholiker, aber ich bin davon losgekommen
    III. n Reform f; of self, a criminal Besserung f; of criminal, drug-addict Resozialisierung f ÖSTERR
    \reforms to the system Reformen pl am System
    ▪ to be beyond \reform nicht reformierbar sein
    far-reaching [or sweeping] [or wide-ranging] \reform weitreichende Reform
    social \reform Sozialreform f
    to cry out for \reform nach Reform schreien
    IV. n modifier (measures, programme) Reform-
    * * *
    [rɪ'fɔːm]
    1. n
    Reform f; (of person) Besserung f

    reform school ( Brit dated US ) —, US ) Besserungsanstalt f

    See:
    → land reform
    2. vt
    law, institutions, services, spelling system reformieren; society also verbessern; conduct, person bessern
    3. vi
    (person) sich bessern
    * * *
    reform [rıˈfɔː(r)m]
    A s
    1. POL etc Reform f, Verbesserung f:
    reform jam Reformstau m;
    reform program(me) Reformprogramm n
    2. Besserung f:
    reform school Br HIST od US Besserungsanstalt f
    B v/t
    1. reformieren, verbessern
    2. jemanden bessern
    3. einen Missstand etc beseitigen
    4. JUR US eine Urkunde berichtigen
    C v/i sich bessern
    * * *
    1. transitive verb
    1) (make better) bessern [Person]; reformieren [Institution]
    2. intransitive verb 3. noun
    (of person) Besserung, die; (in a system) Reform, die (in Gen.)
    * * *
    n.
    Besserung f.
    Reform -en f.
    Verbesserung f. v.
    jemanden bessern ausdr.
    umgestalten v.
    verbessern v.

    English-german dictionary > reform

  • 4 reform

    re·form [rɪʼfɔ:m, Am -ʼfɔ:rm] vt
    to \reform sth institution, system etw reformieren;
    to \reform a criminal/ drug addict einen Kriminellen/Drogenabhängigen/eine Kriminelle/Drogenabhängige bessern;
    to \reform oneself sich akk bessern vi person sich akk bessern;
    for years I was an alcoholic but I \reformed ich war jahrelang Alkoholiker, aber ich bin davon losgekommen n Reform f; of self, a criminal Besserung f;
    \reforms to the system Reformen fpl am System;
    to be beyond \reform nicht reformierbar sein;
    far-reaching [or sweeping] [or wide-ranging] \reform weitreichende Reform;
    social \reform Sozialreform f;
    to cry out for \reform nach Reform schreien n
    modifier (measures, programme) Reform-

    English-German students dictionary > reform

  • 5 On Urgent Measures Relating to the Effectuation of Land Reform in the RSFSR

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > On Urgent Measures Relating to the Effectuation of Land Reform in the RSFSR

  • 6 drastic

    drastic [ˈdræstɪk]
    [reform, measures, reduction] drastique ; [remedy, surgery, change] radical ; [consequences, decline] dramatique
    * * *
    ['dræstɪk]
    adjective [policy, measure] draconien/-ienne; [reduction, remedy] drastique; [effect] catastrophique; [change] radical

    English-French dictionary > drastic

  • 7 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 8 measure

    'meʒə 1. noun
    1) (an instrument for finding the size, amount etc of something: a glass measure for liquids; a tape-measure.) mål; målebånd; litermål
    2) (a unit: The metre is a measure of length.) målenhet
    3) (a system of measuring: dry/liquid/square measure.) mål(esystem)
    4) (a plan of action or something done: We must take (= use, or put into action) certain measures to stop the increase in crime.) skritt, forholdsregel
    5) (a certain amount: a measure of sympathy.) en viss (grad)
    6) ((in music) the musical notes contained between two bar lines.) takt
    2. verb
    1) (to find the size, amount etc of (something): He measured the table.) måle, ta mål av
    2) (to show the size, amount etc of: A thermometer measures temperature.) måle, vise
    3) ((with against, besides etc) to judge in comparison with: She measured her skill in cooking against her friend's.) måle seg med/mot, prøve krefter med
    4) (to be a certain size: This table measures two metres by one metre.) måle
    •
    - beyond measure
    - for good measure
    - full measure
    - made to measure
    - measure out
    - measure up
    bedømme
    --------
    forholdsregel
    --------
    kriterium
    --------
    mål
    --------
    måle
    --------
    måling
    --------
    måte
    --------
    standard
    --------
    takt
    I
    subst. \/ˈmeʒə\/
    1) mål, størrelse, dimensjon, kvantitet, mengde
    2) mål, måleenhet, måleredskap, målebånd, målestav, målestokk, målekar
    3) grad, mål, monn
    4) moderat mengde, beskjeden mengde
    5) utstrekning, omfang
    6) grense, begrensning
    7) ( parlamentarisk) tiltak, lovforslag
    8) forholdsregel, foranstaltning, skritt
    som et første skritt \/ til å begynne med
    9) ( poesi) versemål, verseform, rytme, versefot
    10) (amer., musikk) takt, taktart, rytme
    11) ( musikk) melodi, poetisk vise
    12) ( gammeldags) dans
    13) tilmålt del, rettmessig del
    14) ( matematikk) divisor (som går opp i et tall et helt antall ganger)
    15) ( typografi) linjebredde, kolonnebredde, spaltebredde
    16) ( geologi) stratum, lag, leie, sjikt
    beyond measure uten grenser, grenseløs
    by measure etter mål
    dry measure mål for tørre varer
    fill up the measure fylle opp målet, fylle målet til randen
    for good measure attpå, ekstra
    full\/good measure godt mål
    get one's measure of få sin tilmålte del av
    greatest common measure største felles mål
    have the measure of somebody\/something vite hvordan noe\/noen skal håndteres
    in a measure eller in some measure til en viss grad
    in ample measure i rikt mål, i rikt monn
    in equal measure i likt monn, like mye
    in great measure i stort omfang, i stor grad
    in measure as i den grad som
    interim measure ( jus) midlertidig forføyning
    know no measures ikke kjenne grenser
    know the measure of somebody's foot ( gammeldags) kjenne noens svake sider
    level measure strøkent mål
    liquid measure hulmål (for væsker)
    made to measure målsydd, laget etter mål
    measure for measure like for like
    measure of length lengdemål
    measures fremgangsmåte, metode
    measures of reform reformtiltak
    set measures to sette grenser for, begrense
    short measure undermål, snaut mål, knapt mål
    take measures ta forholdsregler, gå til skritt
    take the measure of somebody finne ut hvordan noen skal takles ta mål av noen
    take the measure of something finne ut hvordan noe skal takles eller gripes an (be)
    the measure of ( overført) (være) et mål på, (være) målestokk for
    ultra measures (ytterst) radikale tiltak
    weights and measures mål og vekt
    within measure innenfor visse grenser
    II
    verb \/ˈmeʒə\/
    1) måle, måle opp, ta mål av
    2) registrere, måle, bedømme
    3) avpasse
    4) ( om mengde) måle, utgjøre
    den måler 7 centimeter \/ den er 7 centimeter lang
    5) være målbar, være mulig å måle
    6) ( poetisk) tilbakelegge
    7) måle opp
    8) porsjonere ut, måle ut, dele ut
    measure off måle av, måle ut noe
    measure oneself against\/with måle krefter med, måle seg mot
    measure one's length falle langflat, falle så lang en er
    measure out måle ut, dele ut, porsjonere ut
    measure somebody by one's own standard ( overført) dømme\/måle noen i forhold til seg selv
    measure somebody with one's eye måle noen med øynene, mønstre noen
    measure up to\/with holde mål i forhold til, svare til, måle seg med
    measure up to one's responsibilities være seg sitt ansvar bevisst

    English-Norwegian dictionary > measure

  • 9 introduction

    noun
    1) (of methods, measures, process, machinery) Einführen, das; Einführung, die; (of rules) Aufstellung, die
    2) (formal presentation) Vorstellung, die; (into society) Einführung, die; (of reform) Einleiten, das

    do the introductions — die Anwesenden miteinander bekannt machen

    letter of introduction — Empfehlungsschreiben, das

    3) (preliminary matter) Einleitung, die
    * * *
    1) (the act of introducing, or the process of being introduced: the introduction of new methods.) die Einführung
    2) (an act of introducing one person to another: The hostess made the introductions and everyone shook hands.) die Vorstellung
    3) (something written at the beginning of a book explaining the contents, or said at the beginning of a speech etc.) die Einleitung
    * * *
    intro·duc·tion
    [ˌɪntrəˈdʌkʃən]
    n
    1. (first contact) Vorstellung f, Bekanntmachung f
    my next guest needs no \introduction meinen nächsten Gast brauche ich nicht vorzustellen
    his textbook would serve as an \introduction to this subject sein Lehrbuch soll in diese Materie einführen
    sb's \introduction to smoking/alcohol jds erste Bekanntschaft mit dem Rauchen/Alkohol
    to do [or make] the \introductions Leute einander vorstellen
    she performed the \introductions sie machte alle miteinander bekannt
    2. (establishment) Einführung f
    \introduction into the market Markteinführung f
    \introduction of the euro Euro-Einführung f
    3. STOCKEX [Börsen]einführung f
    4. MED (insertion) Einführen nt
    5. (preface) Einleitung f, Vorwort nt; MUS Einleitung f
    * * *
    ["Intrə'dʌkSən]
    n
    1) (to person) Vorstellung f

    since his introduction to Lord X — seit er Lord X vorgestellt worden ist

    2) (= introductory part to book, music) Einleitung f (to zu)
    3) (= elementary course, book) Einführung f
    4) (= introducing, being introduced) (to subject) Einführung f (to in +acc); (to habit, hobby) Bekanntschaft f (to mit); (of fashion, practice, reform etc) Einführung f; (of bill, competition) Einbringen nt; (= announcing) (of speaker) Vorstellung f, Ankündigung f; (of programme) Ankündigung f; (= bringing or carrying in) Einführung f (into in +dat); (= insertion) Einführung f (into in +acc)
    * * *
    introduction [ˌıntrəˈdʌkʃn] s
    1. Einführung f
    2. Bekanntmachen n, Vorstellung f:
    make the introductions die Vorstellung übernehmen
    3. Einführung f: → academic.ru/42551/letter">letter1 A 2
    4. Anschneiden n, Aufwerfen n
    5. Einleitung f, Vorrede f, Vorwort n
    6. MUS Introduktion f:
    a) freier Einleitungssatz vor dem Hauptsatz einer Sonate etc
    7. Leitfaden m, Anleitung f, Lehrbuch n:
    an introduction to botany ein Leitfaden der Botanik
    8. Einschleppung f
    9. Einbringung f
    intro. (introd.) abk
    * * *
    noun
    1) (of methods, measures, process, machinery) Einführen, das; Einführung, die; (of rules) Aufstellung, die
    2) (formal presentation) Vorstellung, die; (into society) Einführung, die; (of reform) Einleiten, das

    letter of introduction — Empfehlungsschreiben, das

    3) (preliminary matter) Einleitung, die
    * * *
    n.
    Einführung f.
    Einleitung f.

    English-german dictionary > introduction

  • 10 program

    1. n

    to administer a program — выполнять / осуществлять программу

    to apply a program — использовать / применять программу

    to approve a program — утверждать / одобрять программу

    to attack smb's program publicly — публично критиковать чью-л. программу

    to carry out a program — выполнять / осуществлять программу

    to contribute to a program — способствовать выполнению программы; вносить вклад в программу

    to expand / to extend a program — расширять программу

    to lay out a program — излагать / намечать программу

    to map out a program — намечать / составлять программу

    to outline a program — излагать / намечать программу

    to profess a program — придерживаться программы; отстаивать программу

    to set out a program — излагать / намечать программу

    to unfreeze one's nuclear program — размораживать свою ядерную программу

    to unveil one's program — обнародовать свою программу

    to water down one's program — ослаблять свою программу

    - action-oriented program
    - activated program
    - ad hoc program
    - advanced technical training programs
    - aerospace program
    - agrarian program
    - agrarian reform program
    - aid program
    - all-embracing program
    - alternative program
    - ambitious program
    - anti-inflation program
    - anti-marine pollution programs
    - armament program
    - assistance program
    - atomic energy program
    - atoms-for-peace program
    - austerity program
    - ballot-counting program
    - bilateral program
    - black programs
    - broad program
    - broad-ranging program
    - budget program
    - categorical assistance program
    - civil nuclear program
    - civil nuclear-power program
    - clear-cut program
    - coherent program
    - component program
    - comprehensive program
    - compromise program
    - concerted program
    - concrete program
    - consolidated program
    - constructive program
    - coordinator of a program
    - country programs
    - crash program
    - daily program of sittings
    - detailed program
    - development program
    - diminution in a program
    - disarmament program
    - disease control programs
    - domestic assaults on a program
    - dormant program
    - draft program
    - economic development program
    - economic recovery program
    - economic reform program
    - election program
    - energy program
    - established program
    - European Recovery Program
    - execution of a program
    - expanded program
    - export promotion program
    - family planning program
    - famine relief program
    - feasible program
    - feed-back program
    - fellowship program
    - field programs
    - fiscal program
    - flight program
    - follow-on program
    - follow-up program
    - food program
    - foreign policy program
    - general democratic program
    - global program
    - government program
    - halt to the program
    - health program
    - home-policy program
    - housing program
    - implementation of a program
    - industrial development program
    - innovative program
    - in-plant training program
    - integrated program
    - interdisciplinary program of research
    - intergovernmental program
    - investment promotion program
    - job-training program
    - joint program
    - land reform program
    - large-scale program
    - live program
    - long-range program
    - long-term program
    - major program
    - manned program
    - marine program
    - massive program
    - maximum program
    - medium-term programs
    - militant program
    - military-political program
    - military-space programs
    - minimum program
    - modernization program
    - monitoring and evaluating programs
    - multilateral aid program
    - national program
    - nation-wide program
    - natural resources development program
    - negotiating program
    - nondefense program
    - non-nuclear defense program
    - nuclear program
    - nuclear test program
    - nuclear-power program
    - nuclear-weapons program
    - operational program
    - optional program
    - party program
    - Peace Program
    - peaceful program
    - performance of a program
    - phased program
    - pilot program
    - political program
    - population program
    - power program
    - price support program
    - priority program
    - privatization program
    - production program
    - program aimed at smth
    - program for economic cooperation
    - program for peace and international cooperation
    - program has begun its most difficult period
    - program has raised objections
    - program of action
    - program of activities
    - program of consolidation
    - program of general and complete disarmament
    - program of gradual change
    - program of measures
    - program of militarization
    - program of national rebirth
    - program of research
    - program of revival
    - program of work
    - promotion program
    - public investment program
    - public program
    - reconstruction program
    - recovery program
    - reform program
    - regional program
    - regular program
    - rehabilitation program
    - research program
    - resettlement program
    - restructured program
    - retraining program
    - revised program
    - revision of a program
    - rural development program
    - safeguards program
    - safety standards program
    - scientific program
    - social program
    - social welfare program
    - sound program
    - space exploration program
    - space program
    - special-purpose program
    - Star Wars program
    - Strategic Defense Initiative Program
    - study program
    - systematic assessment of the relevance, adequacy, progress, efficiency, effectiveness and impact of a program
    - target program
    - technical aid program
    - terrorism reward program
    - tough program
    - training program
    - unconstructive program
    - under the program
    - unemployment insurance program
    - UNEP
    - United Nations Environment Program
    - utopian program
    - vast program
    - viable program
    - war program
    - wasteful program
    - welfare program
    - well-balanced program
    - well-planned program
    - well-thought-out program
    - wide-ranging program
    - work program
    - world food program
    - youth exchange program     2. v
    составлять программу, разрабатывать программу; программировать

    Politics english-russian dictionary > program

  • 11 Chronology

      15,000-3,000 BCE Paleolithic cultures in western Portugal.
      400-200 BCE Greek and Carthaginian trade settlements on coast.
      202 BCE Roman armies invade ancient Lusitania.
      137 BCE Intensive Romanization of Lusitania begins.
      410 CE Germanic tribes — Suevi and Visigoths—begin conquest of Roman Lusitania and Galicia.
      714—16 Muslims begin conquest of Visigothic Lusitania.
      1034 Christian Reconquest frontier reaches Mondego River.
      1064 Christians conquer Coimbra.
      1139 Burgundian Count Afonso Henriques proclaims himself king of Portugal; birth of Portugal. Battle of Ourique: Afonso Henriques defeats Muslims.
      1147 With English Crusaders' help, Portuguese seize Lisbon from Muslims.
      1179 Papacy formally recognizes Portugal's independence (Pope Alexander III).
      1226 Campaign to reclaim Alentejo from Muslims begins.
      1249 Last Muslim city (Silves) falls to Portuguese Army.
      1381 Beginning of third war between Castile and Portugal.
      1383 Master of Aviz, João, proclaimed regent by Lisbon populace.
      1385 April: Master of Aviz, João I, proclaimed king of Portugal by Cortes of Coimbra. 14 August: Battle of Aljubarrota, Castilians defeated by royal forces, with assistance of English army.
      1394 Birth of "Prince Henry the Navigator," son of King João I.
      1415 Beginning of overseas expansion as Portugal captures Moroccan city of Ceuta.
      1419 Discovery of Madeira Islands.
      1425-28 Prince D. Pedro, older brother of Prince Henry, travels in Europe.
      1427 Discovery (or rediscovery?) of Azores Islands.
      1434 Prince Henry the Navigator's ships pass beyond Cape Bojador, West Africa.
      1437 Disaster at Tangier, Morocco, as Portuguese fail to capture city.
      1441 First African slaves from western Africa reach Portugal.
      1460 Death of Prince Henry. Portuguese reach what is now Senegal, West Africa.
      1470s Portuguese explore West African coast and reach what is now Ghana and Nigeria and begin colonizing islands of São Tomé and Príncipe.
      1479 Treaty of Alcáçovas between kings of Portugal and Spain.
      1482 Portuguese establish post at São Jorge da Mina, Gold Coast (now Ghana).
      1482-83 Portuguese navigator Diogo Cão reaches mouth of Congo River and Angola.
      1488 Navigator Bartolomeu Dias rounds Cape of Good Hope, South Africa, and finds route to Indian Ocean.
      1492-93 Columbus's first voyage to West Indies.
      1493 Columbus visits Azores and Portugal on return from first voyage; tells of discovery of New World. Treaty of Tordesillas signed between kings of Portugal and Spain: delimits spheres of conquest with line 370 leagues west of Cape Verde Islands (claimed by Portugal); Portugal's sphere to east of line includes, in effect, Brazil.
       King Manuel I and Royal Council decide to continue seeking all-water route around Africa to Asia.
       King Manuel I expels unconverted Jews from Portugal.
      1497-99 Epic voyage of Vasco da Gama from Portugal around Africa to west India, successful completion of sea route to Asia project; da Gama returns to Portugal with samples of Asian spices.
      1500 Bound for India, Navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral "discovers" coast of Brazil and claims it for Portugal.
      1506 Anti-Jewish riots in Lisbon.
       Battle of Diu, India; Portugal's command of Indian Ocean assured for some time with Francisco de Almeida's naval victory over Egyptian and Gujerati fleets.
       Afonso de Albuquerque conquers Goa, India; beginning of Portuguese hegemony in south Asia.
       Portuguese conquest of Malacca; commerce in Spice Islands.
      1519 Magellan begins circumnavigation voyage.
      1536 Inquisition begins in Portugal.
      1543 Portuguese merchants reach Japan.
      1557 Portuguese merchants granted Chinese territory of Macau for trading factory.
      1572 Luís de Camões publishes epic poem, Os Lusíadas.
      1578 Battle of Alcácer-Quivir; Moroccan forces defeat army of King Sebastião of Portugal; King Sebastião dies in battle. Portuguese succession crisis.
      1580 King Phillip II of Spain claims and conquers Portugal; Spanish rule of Portugal, 1580-1640.
      1607-24 Dutch conquer sections of Asia and Brazil formerly held by Portugal.
      1640 1 December: Portuguese revolution in Lisbon overthrows Spanish rule, restores independence. Beginning of Portugal's Braganza royal dynasty.
      1654 Following Dutch invasions and conquest of parts of Brazil and Angola, Dutch expelled by force.
      1661 Anglo-Portuguese Alliance treaty signed: England pledges to defend Portugal "as if it were England itself." Queen Catherine of Bra-ganza marries England's Charles II.
      1668 February: In Portuguese-Spanish peace treaty, Spain recognizes independence of Portugal, thus ending 28-year War of Restoration.
      1703 Methuen Treaties signed, key commercial trade agreement and defense treaty between England and Portugal.
      1750 Pombal becomes chief minister of King José I.
      1755 1 November: Massive Lisbon earthquake, tidal wave, and fire.
      1759 Expulsion of Jesuits from Portugal and colonies.
      1761 Slavery abolished in continental Portugal.
      1769 Abandonment of Mazagão, Morocco, last Portuguese outpost.
      1777 Pombal dismissed as chief minister by Queen Maria I, after death of José I.
      1791 Portugal and United States establish full diplomatic relations.
      1807 November: First Napoleonic invasion; French forces under Junot conquer Portugal. Royal family flees to colony of Brazil and remains there until 1821.
      1809 Second French invasion of Portugal under General Soult.
      1811 Third French invasion of Portugal under General Masséna.
      1813 Following British general Wellington's military victories, French forces evacuate Portugal.
      1817 Liberal, constitutional movements against absolutist monarchist rule break out in Brazil (Pernambuco) and Portugal (Lisbon, under General Gomes Freire); crushed by government. British marshal of Portugal's army, Beresford, rules Portugal.
       Liberal insurrection in army officer corps breaks out in Cadiz, Spain, and influences similar movement in Portugal's armed forces first in Oporto.
       King João VI returns from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and early draft of constitution; era of constitutional monarchy begins.
      1822 7 September: João VI's son Pedro proclaims independence of
       Brazil from Portugal and is named emperor. 23 September: Constitution of 1822 ratified.
       Portugal recognizes sovereign independence of Brazil.
       King João VI dies; power struggle for throne ensues between his sons, brothers Pedro and Miguel; Pedro, emperor of Brazil, abdicates Portuguese throne in favor of his daughter, D. Maria II, too young to assume crown. By agreement, Miguel, uncle of D. Maria, is to accept constitution and rule in her stead.
      1828 Miguel takes throne and abolishes constitution. Sections of Portugal rebel against Miguelite rule.
      1831 Emperor Pedro abdicates throne of Brazil and returns to Portugal to expel King Miguel from Portuguese throne.
      1832-34 Civil war between absolutist King Miguel and constitutionalist Pedro, who abandons throne of Brazil to restore his young daughter Maria to throne of Portugal; Miguel's armed forces defeated by those of Pedro. Miguel leaves for exile and constitution (1826 Charter) is restored.
      1834-53 Constitutional monarchy consolidated under rule of Queen Maria II, who dies in 1853.
      1851-71 Regeneration period of economic development and political stability; public works projects sponsored by Minister Fontes Pereira de Melo.
      1871-90 Rotativism period of alternating party governments; achieves political stability and less military intervention in politics and government. Expansion of colonial territory in tropical Africa.
       January: Following territorial dispute in central Africa, Britain delivers "Ultimatum" to Portugal demanding withdrawal of Portugal's forces from what is now Malawi and Zimbabwe. Portugal's government, humiliated in accepting demand under threat of a diplomatic break, falls. Beginning of governmental and political instability; monarchist decline and republicanism's rise.
       Anglo-Portuguese treaties signed relating to delimitation of frontiers in colonial Africa.
      1899 Treaty of Windsor; renewal of Anglo-Portuguese defense and friendship alliance.
      1903 Triumphal visit of King Edward VII to Portugal.
      1906 Politician João Franco supported by King Carlos I in dictatorship to restore order and reform.
      1908 1 February: Murder in Lisbon of King Carlos I and his heir apparent, Prince Dom Luís, by Portuguese anarchists. Eighteen-year-old King Manuel II assumes throne.
      1910 3-5 October: Following republican-led military insurrection in armed forces, monarchy falls and first Portuguese republic is proclaimed. Beginning of unstable, economically troubled, parliamentary republic form of government.
       May: Violent insurrection in Lisbon overturns government of General Pimenta de Castro; nearly a thousand casualties from several days of armed combat in capital.
       March: Following Portugal's honoring ally Britain's request to confiscate German shipping in Portuguese harbors, Germany declares war on Portugal; Portugal enters World War I on Allied side.
       Portugal organizes and dispatches Portuguese Expeditionary Corps to fight on the Western Front. 9 April: Portuguese forces mauled by German offensive in Battle of Lys. Food rationing and riots in Lisbon. Portuguese military operations in Mozambique against German expedition's invasion from German East Africa. 5 December: Authoritarian, presidentialist government under Major Sidónio Pais takes power in Lisbon, following a successful military coup.
      1918 11 November: Armistice brings cessation of hostilities on Western Front in World War I. Portuguese expeditionary forces stationed in Angola, Mozambique, and Flanders begin return trip to Portugal. 14 December: President Sidónio Pais assassinated. Chaotic period of ephemeral civil war ensues.
      1919-21 Excessively unstable political period, including January
      1919 abortive effort of Portuguese monarchists to restore Braganza dynasty to power. Republican forces prevail, but level of public violence, economic distress, and deprivation remains high.
      1921 October: Political violence attains peak with murder of former prime minister and other prominent political figures in Lisbon. Sectors of armed forces and Guarda Nacional Republicana are mutinous. Year of financial and corruption scandals, including Portuguese bank note (fraud) case; military court acquits guilty military insurrectionists, and one military judge declares "the country is sick."
       28 May: Republic overthrown by military coup or pronunciamento and conspiracy among officer corps. Parliament's doors locked and parliament closed for nearly nine years to January 1935. End of parliamentary republic, Western Europe's most unstable political system in this century, beginning of the Portuguese dictatorship, after 1930 known as the Estado Novo. Officer corps assumes reins of government, initiates military censorship of the press, and suppresses opposition.
       February: Military dictatorship under General Óscar Carmona crushes failed republican armed insurrection in Oporto and Lisbon.
       April: Military dictatorship names Professor Antônio de Oliveira Salazar minister of finance, with dictatorial powers over budget, to stabilize finances and rebuild economy. Insurrectionism among military elements continues into 1931.
      1930 Dr. Salazar named minister for colonies and announces balanced budgets. Salazar consolidates support by various means, including creation of official regime "movement," the National Union. Salazar engineers Colonial Act to ensure Lisbon's control of bankrupt African colonies by means of new fiscal controls and centralization of authority. July: Military dictatorship names Salazar prime minister for first time, and cabinet composition undergoes civilianization; academic colleagues and protégés plan conservative reform and rejuvenation of society, polity, and economy. Regime comes to be called the Estado Novo (New State). New State's constitution ratified by new parliament, the National Assembly; Portugal described in document as "unitary, corporative Republic" and governance influenced by Salazar's stern personality and doctrines such as integralism, Catholicism, and fiscal conservatism.
      1936 Violent instability and ensuing civil war in neighboring Spain, soon internationalized by fascist and communist intervention, shake Estado Novo regime. Pseudofascist period of regime features creation of imitation Fascist institutions to defend regime from leftist threats; Portugal institutes "Portuguese Youth" and "Portuguese Legion."
      1939 3 September: Prime Minister Salazar declares Portugal's neutrality in World War II. October: Anglo-Portuguese agreement grants naval and air base facilities to Britain and later to United States for Battle of the Atlantic and Normandy invasion support. Third Reich protests breach of Portugal's neutrality.
       6 June: On day of Allies' Normandy invasion, Portugal suspends mining and export of wolfram ore to both sides in war.
       8 May: Popular celebrations of Allied victory and Fascist defeat in Lisbon and Oporto coincide with Victory in Europe Day. Following managed elections for Estado Novo's National Assembly in November, regime police, renamed PIDE, with increased powers, represses opposition.
      1947 Abortive military coup in central Portugal easily crushed by regime. Independence of India and initiation of Indian protests against Portuguese colonial rule in Goa and other enclaves.
      1949 Portugal becomes founding member of NATO.
      1951 Portugal alters constitution and renames overseas colonies "Overseas Provinces." Portugal and United States sign military base agreements for use of air and naval facilities in Azores Islands and military aid to Lisbon. President Carmona dies in office, succeeded by General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58). July: Indians occupy enclave of Portuguese India (dependency of Damão) by means of passive resistance movement. August: Indian passive resistance movement in Portuguese India repelled by Portuguese forces with loss of life. December: With U.S. backing, Portugal admitted as member of United Nations (along with Spain). Air force general Humberto Delgado, in opposition, challenges Estado Novo's hand-picked successor to Craveiro Lopes, Admiral Américo Tomás. Delgado rallies coalition of democratic, liberal, and communist opposition but loses rigged election and later flees to exile in Brazil. Portugal joins European Free Trade Association (EFTA).
       January and February: Estado Novo rocked by armed African insurrection in northern Angola, crushed by armed forces. Hijacking of Portuguese ocean liner by ally of Delgado, Captain Henrique Galvão. April: Salazar defeats attempted military coup and reshuffles cabinet with group of younger figures who seek to reform colonial rule and strengthen the regime's image abroad. 18 December: Indian army rapidly defeats Portugal's defense force in Goa, Damão, and Diu and incorporates Portugal's Indian possessions into Indian Union. January: Abortive military coup in Beja, Portugal.
      1965 February: General Delgado and his Brazilian secretary murdered and secretly buried near Spanish frontier by political police, PIDE.
      1968 August and September: Prime Minister Salazar, aged 79, suffers crippling stoke. President Tomás names former cabinet officer Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor. Caetano institutes modest reforms in Portugal and overseas.
      1971 Caetano government ratifies amended constitution that allows slight devolution and autonomy to overseas provinces in Africa and Asia. Right-wing loyalists oppose reforms in Portugal. 25 April: Military coup engineered by Armed Forces Movement overthrows Estado Novo and establishes provisional government emphasizing democratization, development, and decolonization. Limited resistance by loyalists. President Tomás and Premier Caetano flown to exile first in Madeira and then in Brazil. General Spínola appointed president. September: Revolution moves to left, as President Spínola, thwarted in his program, resigns.
       March: Military coup by conservative forces fails, and leftist response includes nationalization of major portion of economy. Polarization between forces and parties of left and right. 25 November: Military coup by moderate military elements thwarts leftist forces. Constituent Assembly prepares constitution. Revolution moves from left to center and then right.
       March: Constitution ratified by Assembly of the Republic. 25 April: Second general legislative election gives largest share of seats to Socialist Party (PS). Former oppositionist lawyer, Mário Soares, elected deputy and named prime minister.
      1977-85 Political pendulum of democratic Portugal moves from center-left to center-right, as Social Democratic Party (PSD) increases hold on assembly and take office under Prime Minister Cavaco Silva. July
      1985 elections give edge to PSD who advocate strong free-enterprise measures and revision of leftist-generated 1976 Constitution, amended modestly in 1982.
      1986 January: Portugal joins European Economic Community (EEC).
      1987 July: General, legislative elections for assembly give more than 50 percent to PSD led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva. For first time, since 1974, Portugal has a working majority government.
      1989 June: Following revisions of 1976 Constitution, reprivatization of economy begins, under PS government.
       January: Presidential elections, Mário Soares reelected for second term. July: General, legislative elections for assembly result in new PSD victory and majority government.
       January-July: Portugal holds presidency of the Council of the European Economic Community (EEC). December: Tariff barriers fall as fully integrated Common Market established in the EEC.
       November: Treaty of Maastricht comes into force. The EEC officially becomes the European Union (EU). Portugal is signatory with 11 other member-nations.
       October: General, legislative elections for assembly result in PS victory and naming of Prime Minister Guterres. PS replace PSD as leading political party. November: Excavations for Lisbon bank uncover ancient Phoenician, Roman, and Christian ruins.
       January: General, presidential elections; socialist Jorge Sampaio defeats PSD's Cavaco Silva and assumes presidency from Dr. Mário Soares. July: Community of Portuguese Languages Countries (CPLP) cofounded by Portugal and Brazil.
       May-September: Expo '98 held in Lisbon. Opening of Vasco da Gama Bridge across Tagus River, Europe's longest (17 kilometers/ 11 miles). June: National referendum on abortion law change defeated after low voter turnout. November: National referendum on regionaliza-tion and devolution of power defeated after another low voter turnout.
       October: General, legislative elections: PS victory over PSD lacks clear majority in parliament. Following East Timor referendum, which votes for independence and withdrawal of Indonesia, outburst of popular outrage in streets, media, and communications of Portugal approves armed intervention and administration of United Nations (and withdrawal of Indonesia) in East Timor. Portugal and Indonesia restore diplomatic relations. December: A Special Territory since 1975, Colony of Macau transferred to sovereignty of People's Republic of China.
       January-June: Portugal holds presidency of the Council of the EU; end of Discoveries Historical Commemoration Cycle (1988-2000).
       United Nations forces continue to occupy and administer former colony of East Timor, with Portugal's approval.
       January: General, presidential elections; PS president Sampaio reelected for second term. City of Oporto, "European City of Culture" for the year, hosts arts festival. December: Municipal elections: PSD defeats PS; socialist prime minister Guterres resigns; President Sampaio calls March parliamentary elections.
       1 January: Portugal enters single European Currency system. Euro currency adopted and ceases use of former national currency, the escudo. March: Parliamentary elections; PSD defeats PS and José Durão Barroso becomes prime minister. Military modernization law passed. Portugal holds chairmanship of Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).
       May: Municipal law passed permitting municipalities to reorganize in new ways.
       June: Prime Minister Durão Barroso, invited to succeed Romano Prodi as president of EU Commission, resigns. Pedro Santana Lopes becomes prime minister. European Parliament elections held. Conscription for national service in army and navy ended. Mass grave uncovered at Academy of Sciences Museum, Lisbon, revealing remains of several thousand victims of Lisbon earthquake, 1755.
       February: Parliamentary elections; PS defeats PSD, socialists win first absolute majority in parliament since 1975. José Sócrates becomes prime minister.
       January: Presidential elections; PSD candidate Aníbal Cavaco Silva elected and assumes presidency from Jorge Sampaio. Portugal's national soccer team ranked 7th out of 205 countries by international soccer association. European Union's Bologna Process in educational reform initiated in Portugal.
       July-December: Portugal holds presidency of the Council of the European Union. For reasons of economy, Portugal announces closure of many consulates, especially in France and the eastern US. Government begins official inspections of private institutions of higher education, following scandals.
      2008 January: Prime Minister Sócrates announces location of new Lisbon area airport as Alcochete, on south bank of Tagus River, site of air force shooting range. February: Portuguese Army begins to receive new modern battle tanks (Leopard 2 A6). March: Mass protest of 85,000 public school (primary and secondary levels) teachers in Lisbon schools dispute recent educational policies of minister of education and prime minister.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Chronology

  • 12 measure

    n. dimension; storlek; mått; mätredskap; takt; tyngd; reform, lagförslag
    --------
    v. mäta; beräkna, uppskatta; mönstra, mäta upp
    * * *
    ['meʒə] 1. noun
    1) (an instrument for finding the size, amount etc of something: a glass measure for liquids; a tape-measure.) mått, mätredskap
    2) (a unit: The metre is a measure of length.) måttenhet
    3) (a system of measuring: dry/liquid/square measure.) mått, måttsystem
    4) (a plan of action or something done: We must take (= use, or put into action) certain measures to stop the increase in crime.) mått [], åtgärd
    5) (a certain amount: a measure of sympathy.) mått
    6) ((in music) the musical notes contained between two bar lines.) takt
    2. verb
    1) (to find the size, amount etc of (something): He measured the table.) mäta
    2) (to show the size, amount etc of: A thermometer measures temperature.) mäta
    3) ((with against, besides etc) to judge in comparison with: She measured her skill in cooking against her friend's.) mäta
    4) (to be a certain size: This table measures two metres by one metre.) mäta
    •
    - beyond measure
    - for good measure
    - full measure
    - made to measure
    - measure out
    - measure up

    English-Swedish dictionary > measure

  • 13 institute

    1. noun
    Institut, das
    2. transitive verb
    einführen [Reform, Brauch, Beschränkung]; einleiten [Suche, Verfahren, Untersuchung]; gründen [Gesellschaft]; anstrengen [Prozess, Klage]; schaffen [Posten]
    * * *
    ['institju:t] 1. noun
    (a society or organization, or the building it uses: There is a lecture at the Philosophical Institute tonight.) das Institut
    2. verb
    (to start or establish: When was the Red Cross instituted?) einrichten
    - academic.ru/38511/institution">institution
    - institutional
    * * *
    in·sti·tute
    [ˈɪn(t)stɪtju:t, AM esp -tu:t]
    I. n Institut nt; (of higher education) Hochschule f
    II. vt
    ▪ to \institute sth
    1. (establish) system, reform etw einführen
    2. (initiate) steps, measures etw einleiten; legal action etw anstrengen
    * * *
    ['Instɪtjuːt]
    1. vt
    1) new laws, tax, custom, reforms, policy einführen; (= found) organization etc einrichten; search einleiten
    2) (JUR) inquiry einleiten; an action einleiten (against sb gegen jdn); proceedings anstrengen (against gegen)

    to institute divorce proceedings — die Scheidung einreichen

    2. n
    Institut nt; (= home) Anstalt f

    Institute of Technology/Education — technische/pädagogische Hochschule

    * * *
    institute [ˈınstıtjuːt; US auch -ˌtuːt]
    A v/t
    1. eine Gesellschaft etc einrichten, gründen, ins Leben rufen
    2. eine Regierung etc einsetzen
    3. Gesetze etc einführen
    4. in Gang setzen, in die Wege leiten, initiieren:
    institute an inquiry eine Untersuchung einleiten;
    institute inquiries Nachforschungen anstellen; → action 12, suit A 4
    5. a) → install 2
    b) REL einsetzen (in, into in akk):
    institute into a benefice in eine Pfründe einsetzen
    6. JUR einsetzen ( sb as heir jemanden zum oder als Erben)
    B s
    1. a) Institut n:
    institute for business cycle research WIRTSCH Konjunkturinstitut
    b) Anstalt f
    c) Akademie f
    d) (literarische etc) Gesellschaft
    2. a) Institut(sgebäude) n
    b) Anstalt(sgebäude) f(n)
    3. SCHULE
    a) höhere technische Schule:
    institute of technology Technische Hochschule;
    textile institute Textilfachschule f
    b) Universitätsinstitut n
    4. pl
    a) JUR Institutionen pl, Sammlung f grundlegender Gesetze, (Rechts-)Kommentar m
    b) Grundlehren pl (einer Wissenschaft)
    I. abk
    5. Island ( Islandspl), Isle ( Isles pl)
    inst. abk
    * * *
    1. noun
    Institut, das
    2. transitive verb
    einführen [Reform, Brauch, Beschränkung]; einleiten [Suche, Verfahren, Untersuchung]; gründen [Gesellschaft]; anstrengen [Prozess, Klage]; schaffen [Posten]
    * * *
    n.
    Institut -e n. v.
    einrichten v.
    gründen v.

    English-german dictionary > institute

  • 14 scope

    skəup
    1) ((often with for) the opportunity or chance to do, use or develop: There's no scope for originality in this job.) oportunidad
    2) (the area or extent of an activity etc: Few things are beyond the scope of a child's imagination.) alcance
    tr[skəʊp]
    1 (area, range - gen) alcance nombre masculino; (- of book, undertaking) ámbito; (ability, field) competencia, campo
    scope ['sko:p] n
    1) range: alcance m, ámbito m, extensión f
    2) opportunity: posibilidades fpl, libertad f
    n.
    • alcance s.m.
    • campo s.m.
    • envergadura s.f.
    • esfera de acción s.f.
    • extensión s.f.
    • mira s.f.
    • oportunidad s.f.
    • ámbito s.m.
    skəʊp
    mass noun
    a) (of law, regulations, reform) alcance m; ( of influence) ámbito m, esfera f; (of investigation, activities) campo m
    b) (opportunity, room) posibilidades fpl
    [skǝʊp]
    N (=opportunity) (for action etc) libertad f, oportunidades fpl ; (=range) [of law, activity] ámbito m ; [of responsibilities] ámbito m ; (=capacity) [of person, mind] alcance m ; (=room) (for manoeuvre etc) esfera f de acción, campo m de acción

    • it is beyond her scope — está fuera de su alcance

    • to extend the scope of one's activities — ampliar su campo de actividades

    • there is plenty of scope for — hay bastante campo para

    • to give sb full scope — dar carta blanca a algn

    • I'm looking for a job with more scope — busco un puesto que ofrezca más posibilidades

    • it is outside my scope — eso está fuera de mi alcance

    • it is within her scope — está a su alcance

    * * *
    [skəʊp]
    mass noun
    a) (of law, regulations, reform) alcance m; ( of influence) ámbito m, esfera f; (of investigation, activities) campo m
    b) (opportunity, room) posibilidades fpl

    English-spanish dictionary > scope

  • 15 drastic

    adjective
    drastisch; erheblich [Wandel, Verbesserung]; durchgreifend, rigoros [Mittel]; dringend [Bedarf]; einschneidend [Veränderung]; erschreckend [Mangel]

    something drastic will have to be done — drastische Maßnahmen müssen ergriffen werden

    * * *
    ['dræstik]
    (violent, severe and having a wide effect: At this point they decided to take drastic action.) drastisch
    - academic.ru/86402/drastically">drastically
    * * *
    dras·tic
    [ˈdræstɪk]
    adj drastisch
    isn't that a bit \drastic? ist das nicht ein bisschen übertrieben?
    \drastic action rigoroses Durchgreifen
    \drastic cuts drastische Kürzungen
    \drastic change radikale [o einschneidende] Veränderung
    to take \drastic measures drastische Maßnahmen ergreifen
    * * *
    ['drstɪk]
    adj
    drastisch; solution radikal, drastisch; consequences schwerwiegend, schwer wiegend; surgery radikal; change, reform einschneidend, radikal; improvement einschneidend
    * * *
    drastic [ˈdræstık]
    A adj (adv drastically)
    1. MED drastisch, stark (besonders Abführmittel)
    2. drastisch, durchgreifend, gründlich, rigoros
    B s MED Drastikum n, starkes Abführmittel
    * * *
    adjective
    drastisch; erheblich [Wandel, Verbesserung]; durchgreifend, rigoros [Mittel]; dringend [Bedarf]; einschneidend [Veränderung]; erschreckend [Mangel]
    * * *
    adj.
    drastisch adj.

    English-german dictionary > drastic

  • 16 effect

    1. noun
    1) (result) Wirkung, die (on auf + Akk.)

    the effects of something on something — die Auswirkungen einer Sache (Gen.) auf etwas (Akk.); die Folgen einer Sache (Gen.) für etwas

    with the effect that... — mit der Folge od. dem Resultat, dass...

    take effect — wirken; die erwünschte Wirkung erzielen

    in effect — in Wirklichkeit; praktisch

    2) no art. (impression) Wirkung, die; Effekt, der

    solely or only for effect — nur des Effekts wegen; aus reiner Effekthascherei (abwertend)

    3) (meaning) Inhalt, der; Sinn, der

    we received a letter to the effect that... — wir erhielten ein Schreiben des Inhalts, dass...

    4) (operativeness) Kraft, die; Gültigkeit, die

    be in effect — gültig od. in Kraft sein

    come into effect — gültig od. wirksam werden; [bes. Gesetz:] in Kraft treten

    put into effect — in Kraft setzen [Gesetz]; verwirklichen [Plan]

    5) in pl. (property) Vermögenswerte Pl.; Eigentum, das

    personal effects — persönliches Eigentum; Privateigentum, das

    household effects — Hausrat, der

    2. transitive verb
    durchführen; herbeiführen [Einigung]; erzielen [Übereinstimmung, Übereinkommen]; tätigen [Umsatz, Kauf]; abschließen [Versicherung]; leisten [Zahlung]
    * * *
    [i'fekt] 1. noun
    1) (a result or consequence: He is suffering from the effects of over-eating; His discovery had little effect at first.) die Wirkung
    2) (an impression given or produced: The speech did not have much effect (on them); a pleasing effect.) die Wirkung
    2. verb
    (to make happen; to bring about: He tried to effect a reconciliation between his parents.) bewirken
    - academic.ru/23440/effective">effective
    - effectively
    - effects
    - effectual
    - come into effect
    - for effect
    - in effect
    - put into effect
    - take effect
    * * *
    ef·fect
    [ɪˈfekt]
    I. n
    1. (result) Wirkung f, Effekt m; (consequence) Auswirkung f ([up]on auf + akk), Folge f ([up]on für + akk); (success) Erfolg m; (influence) Einfluss m (on auf + akk)
    this has the \effect of increasing the temperature dies bewirkt eine Steigerung der Temperatur
    the \effects of drugs on the nervous system die Auswirkungen von Drogen auf das Nervensystem
    talking to him had no \effect because he got drunk again mit ihm zu sprechen war umsonst, denn er betrank sich wieder
    you should feel the \effects of the drug after about 10 minutes du solltest die Wirkung der Drogen nach ca. 10 Minuten spüren
    \effect on earnings FIN Einkommenseffekt m
    to continue to have an \effect nachwirken
    to have an \effect on sb/sth eine Wirkung auf jdn/etw haben; (influence) jdn/etw beeinflussen
    gentle music can have a soothing \effect sanfte Musik kann beruhigend wirken [o eine beruhigende Wirkung haben]
    to have a lasting \effect nachhaltig wirken
    to have no \effect keine Wirkung haben
    to take \effect medicine, anaesthetic Wirkung zeigen, wirken
    to good \effect mit Erfolg
    the overall \effect das Gesamtresultat
    to no \effect erfolglos, ergebnislos
    to such good \effect that... so wirkungsvoll [o geschickt], dass...
    2. no pl (force) Wirksamkeit f; LAW [Rechts]kraft f, Gültigkeit f
    to come into \effect in Kraft treten, wirksam werden
    to put sth into \effect etw durchführen [o realisieren]
    to remain in \effect wirksam [o in Kraft] bleiben
    to take \effect laws, regulations in Kraft treten, wirksam werden
    with \effect from 1st January ( form) mit Wirkung vom 1. Januar [o ÖSTERR Jänner]
    with immediate \effect mit sofortiger Wirkung
    3. (impression) Wirkung f, Effekt m
    to create an \effect einen Effekt [o eine Wirkung] erzielen
    for \effect aus reiner Effekthascherei pej
    he paused for \effect er machte eine effektvolle Pause
    he only dresses like that for \effect he zieht sich nur deswegen so an, um aufzufallen
    4. (sounds, lighting)
    ▪ \effects pl Effekte pl
    light/sound \effects Licht-/Klangeffekte pl
    ▪ \effects pl Eigentum nt kein pl, Vermögen nt kein pl, Effekten pl fachspr
    personal \effects Gegenstände des persönlichen Gebrauchs
    to say something to the \effect that... sinngemäß sagen, dass...
    she said she was demoralized or words to that \effect sie sagte, sie sei demoralisiert, oder etwas in der Art [o oder Ähnliches]
    I received a letter to the \effect that my contract had run out ich erhielt einen Brief des Inhalts, dass mein Vertrag abgelaufen war
    in \effect eigentlich, in Wirklichkeit, im Effekt
    II. vt
    ▪ to \effect sth etw bewirken [o herbeiführen]
    to \effect a breakthrough einen Durchbruch erzielen
    to \effect a change eine Änderung herbeiführen
    to \effect a cure eine Heilung bewirken
    to \effect a merger fusionieren
    to \effect a reform eine Reform durchführen
    * * *
    [ɪ'fekt]
    1. n
    1) (= result) Wirkung f, Effekt m; (= repercussion) Auswirkung f

    the effect of this rule will be to prevent... — diese Regelung wird die Verhinderung von... bewirken or zur Folge haben

    the effect of this is that... —

    to no effect — erfolglos, ergebnislos

    to such good effect that... — so wirkungsvoll, dass...

    to have an effect on sb/sth — eine Wirkung auf jdn/etw haben

    to have a good effect (on sb/sth) — eine gute Wirkung (auf jdn/etw) haben

    with effect from 3 March — mit Wirkung vom 3. März

    2) (= impression) Wirkung f, Effekt m
    3)

    (= meaning) his letter is to the effect that... — sein Brief hat zum Inhalt, dass...

    we received a letter to the effect that... — wir erhielten ein Schreiben des Inhalts, dass...

    ... or words to that effect —... oder etwas in diesem Sinne or etwas Ähnliches

    4) pl (= property) Effekten pl
    5)

    (= reality) in effect — in Wirklichkeit, im Effekt

    6)

    (of laws) to be in effect — gültig or in Kraft sein

    2. vt
    1) bewirken, herbeiführen

    to effect an entry (form) — sich (dat) Zutritt verschaffen

    2) (form) sale, purchase tätigen; payment leisten; insurance abschließen; settlement erzielen
    * * *
    effect [ıˈfekt]
    A s
    1. Wirkung f (on auf akk):
    have a stimulating effect anregend wirken; → calm C, etc
    2. Wirkung f, Erfolg m, Folge f, Konsequenz f, Ergebnis n, Resultat n:
    of no effect, without effect ohne Erfolg oder Wirkung, erfolglos, wirkungslos, vergeblich;
    take effect wirken ( → A 8)
    3. Auswirkung(en) f(pl) (on, upon auf akk), Folge(n) f(pl):
    4. Einwirkung f, -fluss m ( beide:
    on, upon auf akk)
    5. Effekt m, Wirkung f, Eindruck m ( alle:
    on, upon auf akk):
    it was calculated ( oder meant) for effect es sollte Eindruck machen, es war auf Effekt angelegt;
    have an effect on wirken auf (akk), einen Eindruck hinterlassen bei; → strain1 B 1
    6. Inhalt m, Sinn m:
    a letter to the effect that … ein Brief des Inhalts, dass …;
    the same effect desselben Inhalts;
    this effect diesbezüglich, in diesem Sinn;
    inform sb to that effect jemanden entsprechend informieren
    7. Wirklichkeit f:
    carry into ( oder bring to) effect, give effect to verwirklichen, ausführen;
    in effect in Wirklichkeit, tatsächlich, praktisch
    8. (Rechts)Wirksamkeit f, (-)Kraft f, Gültigkeit f:
    be in effect in Kraft sein, gültig oder wirksam sein;
    take effect, go ( oder come) into effect in Kraft treten, gültig oder wirksam werden ( → A 2);
    with effect from mit Wirkung vom
    9. TECH (Nutz)Leistung f (einer Maschine)
    10. ELEK, PHYS induzierte Leistung, Sekundärleistung f
    11. pl WIRTSCH
    a) Effekten pl
    b) bewegliches Eigentum, Vermögen(swerte) n(pl)
    c) persönliche Habe
    d) Barbestand m
    e) Aktiva pl, (Bank)Guthaben n oder pl:
    no effects ohne Guthaben oder Deckung (Scheckvermerk)
    B v/t
    1. be-, erwirken, bewerkstelligen, verursachen, veranlassen
    2. ausführen, tätigen, vornehmen, besorgen, erledigen, vollbringen, -ziehen:
    effect payment WIRTSCH Zahlung leisten
    3. WIRTSCH
    a) ein Geschäft, eine Versicherung abschließen
    b) eine Police ausfertigen
    * * *
    1. noun
    1) (result) Wirkung, die (on auf + Akk.)

    the effects of something on something — die Auswirkungen einer Sache (Gen.) auf etwas (Akk.); die Folgen einer Sache (Gen.) für etwas

    with the effect that... — mit der Folge od. dem Resultat, dass...

    take effect — wirken; die erwünschte Wirkung erzielen

    in effect — in Wirklichkeit; praktisch

    2) no art. (impression) Wirkung, die; Effekt, der

    solely or only for effect — nur des Effekts wegen; aus reiner Effekthascherei (abwertend)

    3) (meaning) Inhalt, der; Sinn, der

    we received a letter to the effect that... — wir erhielten ein Schreiben des Inhalts, dass...

    4) (operativeness) Kraft, die; Gültigkeit, die

    be in effect — gültig od. in Kraft sein

    come into effect — gültig od. wirksam werden; [bes. Gesetz:] in Kraft treten

    put into effect — in Kraft setzen [Gesetz]; verwirklichen [Plan]

    5) in pl. (property) Vermögenswerte Pl.; Eigentum, das

    personal effects — persönliches Eigentum; Privateigentum, das

    household effects — Hausrat, der

    2. transitive verb
    durchführen; herbeiführen [Einigung]; erzielen [Übereinstimmung, Übereinkommen]; tätigen [Umsatz, Kauf]; abschließen [Versicherung]; leisten [Zahlung]
    * * *
    (on) n.
    Auswirkung (auf) f. n.
    Beeinflussung f.
    Effekt -e m.
    Eindruck -¨e m.
    Einwirkung f.
    Ergebnis -se n.
    Wirkung -en f. v.
    ausführen v.
    bewirken v.
    durchführen v.

    English-german dictionary > effect

  • 17 fiscal

    adjective
    fiskalisch; finanzpolitisch
    * * *
    fis·cal
    [ˈfɪskəl]
    adj inv ECON, FIN fiskalisch, steuerlich, Finanz-, Steuer-
    \fiscal agent Bank, die die technische Abwicklung einer Emission übernimmt
    \fiscal drag Progressionsbremse f
    \fiscal law Steuerrecht nt
    \fiscal measures finanzpolitische Maßnahmen
    \fiscal policy Finanzpolitik f
    * * *
    ['fIskəl]
    1. adj
    finanziell; measures finanzpolitisch

    fiscal crisis/policy — Finanzkrise/-politik f

    2. n (Scot JUR)
    Staatsanwalt m/-anwältin f
    * * *
    fiscal [ˈfıskl]
    A adj (adv fiscally) fiskalisch, steuerlich, Fiskal…, Finanz…:
    fiscal fraud Steuerhinterziehung f;
    fiscal immunity Steuerfreiheit f;
    fiscal officer US Finanzbeamte(r) m, -beamtin f;
    fiscal policy Fiskalpolitik f;
    fiscal provisions Steuerbestimmungen;
    fiscal stamp Banderole f, Steuermarke f;
    a) US Geschäftsjahr n,
    b) PARL US Haushalts-, Rechnungsjahr n,
    c) Br Steuerjahr n
    B s JUR schott Staatsanwalt m
    * * *
    adjective
    fiskalisch; finanzpolitisch
    * * *
    adj.
    steuerrechtlich adj. n.
    finanztechnisch adj.

    English-german dictionary > fiscal

  • 18 radical

    1. adjective
    1) (thorough, drastic; also Polit.) radikal; drastisch, radikal [Maßnahme]; umwälzend [Auswirkungen]; durchgreifend [Umstrukturierung, Veränderung usw.]
    2) (progressive, unorthodox) radikal; revolutionär [Stil, Design, Sprachgebrauch]
    3) (inherent, fundamental) grundlegend [Fehler, Unterschied]
    2. noun
    (Polit.) Radikale, der/die
    * * *
    ['rædikəl] 1. adjective
    1) (relating to the basic nature of something: radical faults in the design.) fundamental
    2) (thorough; complete: radical changes.) drastisch
    3) (wanting or involving great or extreme political, social or economic changes.) radikal
    2. noun
    (a person who wants radical political changes.) der/die Radikale
    - academic.ru/59968/radically">radically
    * * *
    radi·cal
    [ˈrædɪkəl]
    I. adj
    1. POL radikal
    \radical activist radikaler Aktivist/radikale Aktivistin
    \radical bookshop/newspaper radikaler Buchladen/radikale Zeitung
    \radical feminist radikale Feministin
    the \radical left/right die radikale [o äußerste] Linke/Rechte
    \radical views radikale [o extreme] Ansichten
    the \radical wing of the party der radikale Parteiflügel
    2. (fundamental) fundamental, total
    we need to take a \radical look at our operating procedures wir müssen unsere Vorgehensweise nochmals eingehend überprüfen
    to make some \radical changes tiefgreifende [o weitreichende] Veränderungen vornehmen
    \radical difference grundlegender [o fundamentaler] Unterschied
    \radical measures tiefgreifende [o grundlegende] Maßnahmen
    a \radical restructuring of a company eine völlige Umstrukturierung einer Firma
    a \radical transformation ein grundlegender Wandel
    3. MED radikal
    \radical surgery Radikaloperation f
    to undergo \radical surgery sich akk einer Totaloperation unterziehen
    4. (sl: excellent, cool) cool sl, toll
    II. n
    1. (person) Radikale(r) f(m)
    left-wing \radical radikale(r) Linke(r) f(m)
    right-wing \radical radikale(r) Rechte(r) f(m)
    2. CHEM Radikal nt
    * * *
    ['rdIkəl]
    1. adj
    1) (= basic) fundamental, Grund-; difference, error fundamental; (= extreme) change, reform radikal, grundlegend; rethinking, re-examination total; measures einschneidend, radikal; reduction radikal, fundamental, rigoros
    2) (POL) person, organization, idea radikal; attitude radikal, rigoros
    3) (MATH) Wurzel-
    4) (BOT) leaves bodenständig
    2. n (POL)
    Radikale(r) mf; (MATH, GRAM) Wurzel f; (in Chinese) Radikal m; (CHEM) Radikal nt
    * * *
    radical [ˈrædıkl]
    A adj (adv → radically)
    1. (POL auch Radical) Radikal…, radikal:
    radical cure Radikal-, Rosskur f;
    undergo a radical change sich von Grund auf ändern
    2. radikal, drastisch (Maßnahmen etc)
    3. a) fundamental, grundlegend(Unterschied etc)
    b) eingewurzelt, ursprünglich:
    the radical evil das Grund- oder Erbübel
    4. BOT, MATH Wurzel…:
    radical axis MATH Potenzlinie f;
    radical expression MATH Wurzelausdruck m;
    radical plane MATH Potenzebene f;
    radical sign MATH Wurzelzeichen n
    5. LING Wurzel…, Stamm…:
    6. BOT grundständig (Blätter)
    7. MUS Grund(ton)…:
    radical bass Grundbass m;
    radical cadence Grundkadenz f
    8. CHEM Radikal…:
    radical chain (reaction) Radikalkette f
    B s
    1. auch Radical POL Radikale(r) m/f(m)
    2. MATH
    a) Wurzel f
    b) Wurzelzeichen n
    3. MUS Grundton m (eines Akkords)
    4. LING Wurzel(buchstabe) f(m)
    5. CHEM Radikal n
    6. fig Basis f, Grundlage f
    R abk
    1. CHEM radical
    2. ELEK resistance
    5. Royal Kgl.
    rad. abk
    2. CHEM radical
    * * *
    1. adjective
    1) (thorough, drastic; also Polit.) radikal; drastisch, radikal [Maßnahme]; umwälzend [Auswirkungen]; durchgreifend [Umstrukturierung, Veränderung usw.]
    2) (progressive, unorthodox) radikal; revolutionär [Stil, Design, Sprachgebrauch]
    3) (inherent, fundamental) grundlegend [Fehler, Unterschied]
    2. noun
    (Polit.) Radikale, der/die
    * * *
    (linguistics) n.
    Wurzelwort n. adj.
    gründlich adj.
    radikal adj.

    English-german dictionary > radical

  • 19 reformatory

    re·for·ma·tory
    [rɪˈfɔ:mətəi, AM -ˈfɔ:rmətɔ:ri]
    I. n AM Besserungsanstalt f veraltet, Jugendhaftanstalt f
    II. adj attr, inv reformatorisch, Reform-
    \reformatory punishment Strafe f zur Besserung
    to give sb a \reformatory speech jdm eine Strafpredigt halten
    * * *
    [rI'fOːmətərI]
    n
    Besserungsanstalt f
    * * *
    reformatory [rıˈfɔː(r)mətərı; US -ˌtəʊriː; -ˌtɔː-]
    A adj
    1. Besserungs…:
    reformatory measures Besserungsmaßnahmen
    2. Reform…
    B s Br HIST oder US Besserungsanstalt f

    English-german dictionary > reformatory

  • 20 Catholic church

       The Catholic Church and the Catholic religion together represent the oldest and most enduring of all Portuguese institutions. Because its origins as an institution go back at least to the middle of the third century, if not earlier, the Christian and later the Catholic Church is much older than any other Portuguese institution or major cultural influence, including the monarchy (lasting 770 years) or Islam (540 years). Indeed, it is older than Portugal (869 years) itself. The Church, despite its changing doctrine and form, dates to the period when Roman Lusitania was Christianized.
       In its earlier period, the Church played an important role in the creation of an independent Portuguese monarchy, as well as in the colonization and settlement of various regions of the shifting Christian-Muslim frontier as it moved south. Until the rise of absolutist monarchy and central government, the Church dominated all public and private life and provided the only education available, along with the only hospitals and charity institutions. During the Middle Ages and the early stage of the overseas empire, the Church accumulated a great deal of wealth. One historian suggests that, by 1700, one-third of the land in Portugal was owned by the Church. Besides land, Catholic institutions possessed a large number of chapels, churches and cathedrals, capital, and other property.
       Extensive periods of Portuguese history witnessed either conflict or cooperation between the Church as the monarchy increasingly sought to gain direct control of the realm. The monarchy challenged the great power and wealth of the Church, especially after the acquisition of the first overseas empire (1415-1580). When King João III requested the pope to allow Portugal to establish the Inquisition (Holy Office) in the country and the request was finally granted in 1531, royal power, more than religion was the chief concern. The Inquisition acted as a judicial arm of the Catholic Church in order to root out heresies, primarily Judaism and Islam, and later Protestantism. But the Inquisition became an instrument used by the crown to strengthen its power and jurisdiction.
       The Church's power and prestige in governance came under direct attack for the first time under the Marquis of Pombal (1750-77) when, as the king's prime minister, he placed regalism above the Church's interests. In 1759, the Jesuits were expelled from Portugal, although they were allowed to return after Pombal left office. Pombal also harnessed the Inquisition and put in place other anticlerical measures. With the rise of liberalism and the efforts to secularize Portugal after 1820, considerable Church-state conflict occurred. The new liberal state weakened the power and position of the Church in various ways: in 1834, all religious orders were suppressed and their property confiscated both in Portugal and in the empire and, in the 1830s and 1840s, agrarian reform programs confiscated and sold large portions of Church lands. By the 1850s, Church-state relations had improved, various religious orders were allowed to return, and the Church's influence was largely restored. By the late 19th century, Church and state were closely allied again. Church roles in all levels of education were pervasive, and there was a popular Catholic revival under way.
       With the rise of republicanism and the early years of the First Republic, especially from 1910 to 1917, Church-state relations reached a new low. A major tenet of republicanism was anticlericalism and the belief that the Church was as much to blame as the monarchy for the backwardness of Portuguese society. The provisional republican government's 1911 Law of Separation decreed the secularization of public life on a scale unknown in Portugal. Among the new measures that Catholics and the Church opposed were legalization of divorce, appropriation of all Church property by the state, abolition of religious oaths for various posts, suppression of the theology school at Coimbra University, abolition of saints' days as public holidays, abolition of nunneries and expulsion of the Jesuits, closing of seminaries, secularization of all public education, and banning of religious courses in schools.
       After considerable civil strife over the religious question under the republic, President Sidónio Pais restored normal relations with the Holy See and made concessions to the Portuguese Church. Encouraged by the apparitions at Fátima between May and October 1917, which caused a great sensation among the rural people, a strong Catholic reaction to anticlericalism ensued. Backed by various new Catholic organizations such as the "Catholic Youth" and the Academic Center of Christian Democracy (CADC), the Catholic revival influenced government and politics under the Estado Novo. Prime Minister Antônio de Oliveira Salazar was not only a devout Catholic and member of the CADC, but his formative years included nine years in the Viseu Catholic Seminary preparing to be a priest. Under the Estado Novo, Church-state relations greatly improved, and Catholic interests were protected. On the other hand, Salazar's no-risk statism never went so far as to restore to the Church all that had been lost in the 1911 Law of Separation. Most Church property was never returned from state ownership and, while the Church played an important role in public education to 1974, it never recovered the influence in education it had enjoyed before 1911.
       Today, the majority of Portuguese proclaim themselves Catholic, and the enduring nature of the Church as an institution seems apparent everywhere in the country. But there is no longer a monolithic Catholic faith; there is growing diversity of religious choice in the population, which includes an increasing number of Protestant Portuguese as well as a small but growing number of Muslims from the former Portuguese empire. The Muslim community of greater Lisbon erected a Mosque which, ironically, is located near the Spanish Embassy. In the 1990s, Portugal's Catholic Church as an institution appeared to be experiencing a revival of influence. While Church attendance remained low, several Church institutions retained an importance in society that went beyond the walls of the thousands of churches: a popular, flourishing Catholic University; Radio Re-nascenca, the country's most listened to radio station; and a new private television channel owned by the Church. At an international conference in Lisbon in September 2000, the Cardinal Patriarch of Portugal, Dom José Policarpo, formally apologized to the Jewish community of Portugal for the actions of the Inquisition. At the deliberately selected location, the place where that religious institution once held its hearings and trials, Dom Policarpo read a declaration of Catholic guilt and repentance and symbolically embraced three rabbis, apologizing for acts of violence, pressures to convert, suspicions, and denunciation.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Catholic church

Страницы
  • 1
  • 2

См. также в других словарях:

  • Reform War — Date 1857 1861 Location Mexico Result Liberal victory Belligerents …   Wikipedia

  • Reform Act 1832 — First page of the Reform Act 1832 This painting by …   Wikipedia

  • Reform movement in Judaism — is a historic and on going religious and social movement that originated simultaneously in the early nineteenth century in the United States [The beginning of the US Reform movement is usually dated to 1824 when a group of reformers in Charleston …   Wikipedia

  • Reform of Architects Registration — was the title of a UK government consultation paper dated 19 July 1994 which was issued by the Department of the Environment. The introduction stated that in October 1993 the Government had announced that the profession and others would be… …   Wikipedia

  • Reform of the House of Lords — For almost a century, governments in the United Kingdom have attempted to find a way to undertake a comprehensive reform of the House of Lords, which is the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. This process was started by the… …   Wikipedia

  • Reform Act 1867 — The Reform Act 1867 (also known as the Second Reform Act, and formally titled the Representation of the People Act 1867), 30 31 Vict. c. 102, was a piece of British legislation that enfranchised the urban working class in England and Wales.… …   Wikipedia

  • REFORM —    the name given in England to successive attempts and measures towards the due extension of the franchise in the election of the members of the House of Commons …   The Nuttall Encyclopaedia

  • Agrarian reform — can refer either, narrowly, to government initiated or government backed redistribution of agricultural land (see land reform) or can refer more broadly to an overall redirection of the agrarian system of the country, which often includes land… …   Wikipedia

  • Hundred Days' Reform — The Hundred Days Reform (zh stp|s=戊戌变法|t=戊戌變法|p=wùxū biànfǎ, or zh stp|s=百日维新|t=百日維新|p=bǎirì wéixīn) was a failed 104 day national cultural, political and educational reform movement from 11 June to 21 September 1898, undertaken by the young… …   Wikipedia

  • Taika Reform — The nihongo|Taika Reforms|大化の改新|Taika no Kaishin were a set of doctrines established by Emperor Kōtoku in the year 646. They were written shortly after the death of Prince Shōtoku, and the defeat of the Soga clan, which united Japan. Crown Prince …   Wikipedia

  • Hundred Days of Reform — ▪ Chinese history       (1898), in Chinese history, imperial attempt at renovating the Chinese state and social system. It occurred after the Chinese defeat in the Sino Japanese War (1894–95) and the ensuing rush for concessions in China on the… …   Universalium

Поделиться ссылкой на выделенное

Прямая ссылка:
… Нажмите правой клавишей мыши и выберите «Копировать ссылку»